After a skirmish near modern Shāhrūd, the usurper had Darius stabbed and left him to die. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media. highest rank of leadership in armies and air forces. It took Alexander until the autumn of 328 to crush the most determined opponent he encountered in his campaigns. Alexander the Great, a Macedonian king, conquered the eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, the Middle East, and parts of Asia in a remarkably short period of time. He developed a life-long love of reading and music. Alexander included botanists and scientists in his army to study the lands he conquered. He was one of the greatest military leaders of all time. Already in his lifetime the subject of fabulous stories, he later became the hero of a full-scale legend bearing only the sketchiest resemblance to his historical career. Due to the limited nature of the information we have about ancient Egypt, the historical figures that we call key is a more limited group than it would be in contemporary times. 6, Classical Association of the Middle West and South, 1968. Alexander thus underlined his Panhellenic policy, already symbolized in the sending of 300 panoplies (sets of armour) taken at the Granicus as an offering dedicated to Athena at Athens by “Alexander son of Philip and the Greeks (except the Spartans) from the barbarians who inhabit Asia.” (This formula, cited by the Greek historian Arrian in his history of Alexander’s campaigns, is noteworthy for its omission of any reference to Macedonia.) He learned from Aristotle. In the meantime (winter 333–332) the Persians had counterattacked by land in Asia Minor—where they were defeated by Antigonus, the satrap of Greater Phrygia—and by sea, recapturing a number of cities and islands. Privacy Notice | Alexander the Great, a Macedonian king, conquered the eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, the Middle East, and parts of Asia in a remarkably short period of time. In spring 326, crossing the Indus near Attock, Alexander entered Taxila, whose ruler, Taxiles, furnished elephants and troops in return for aid against his rival Porus, who ruled the lands between the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum) and the Acesines (modern Chenāb). In his short life (356–323 BCE) he conquered an enormous range of lands—from Macedonia to Egypt and from Greece to parts of India—and gave a new direction to world history. After conquering cities, Alexander the Great would name them after himself. On the Hyphasis he erected 12 altars to the 12 Olympian gods, and on the Hydaspes he built a fleet of 800 to 1,000 ships. Alexander had on several occasions encouraged favourable comparison of his own accomplishments with those of Dionysus or Heracles. When Alexander … He was born in 356 BC in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia. A decree brought by Nicanor to Europe and proclaimed at Olympia (September 324) required the Greek cities of the Greek League to receive back all exiles and their families (except the Thebans), a measure that implied some modification of the oligarchic regimes maintained in the Greek cities by Alexander’s governor Antipater. Alexander the Great, King of Macedon from 336 - 323 B.C., may claim the title of the greatest military leader the world has ever known. Both in Egypt and elsewhere in the Greek cities he received divine honours. On reaching Patala, located at the head of the Indus delta, he built a harbour and docks and explored both arms of the Indus, which probably then ran into the Rann of Kachchh. Washington, DC 20036, National Geographic Society is a 501 (c)(3) organization. Macedonia, a small kingdom in northern Greece, established a growing empire from 359 B.C. During his … Alexander now planned to recall Antipater and supersede him by Craterus, but he was to die before this could be done. His conquest of Egypt had completed his control of the whole eastern Mediterranean coast. Two years later he commanded the left wing at the Battle of Chaeronea, in which Philip defeated the allied Greek states, and displayed personal courage in breaking the Sacred Band of Thebes, an elite military corps composed of 150 pairs of lovers. Updates? In winter 334–333 Alexander conquered western Asia Minor, subduing the hill tribes of Lycia and Pisidia, and in spring 333 he advanced along the coastal road to Perga, passing the cliffs of Mount Climax, thanks to a fortunate change of wind. An incident that occurred at Maracanda widened the breach between Alexander and many of his Macedonians. At length, at the Amanis, he was rejoined by Nearchus and the fleet, which also had suffered losses. Alexander III the Great, the King of Macedonia and conqueror of the Persian Empire is considered one of the greatest military geniuses of all times. The series premiered on 25 October 2014 on Arte as a 90-minute film, and later broadcast on ZDF as a two-part series. Alexander the Great (German: Terra X: Alexander der Große; French: Alexandre le Grand : de l'histoire au mythe) is a 2014 documentary miniseries about Alexander the Great, a co-production of ZDF, Arte and ORF for ZDF's brand Terra X. At Memphis Alexander sacrificed to Apis, the Greek term for Hapi, the sacred Egyptian bull, and was crowned with the traditional double crown of the pharaohs; the native priests were placated and their religion encouraged. 8, Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1985. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Intelligence on both sides was faulty, and Alexander was already encamped by Myriandrus (near modern İskenderun, Turkey) when he learned that Darius was astride his line of communications at Issus, north of Alexander’s position (autumn 333). He had come to envisage a joint ruling people consisting of Macedonians and Persians, and this served to augment the misunderstanding that now arose between him and his people. He also accepted the surrender of Darius’s Greek mercenaries. Turning, Alexander found Darius drawn up along the Pinarus River. Alexander Knew How to Crush a Rebellion. Shortly afterward, father and son were reconciled and Alexander returned, but his position as heir was jeopardized. Left in charge of Macedonia in 340 during Philip’s attack on Byzantium, Alexander defeated the Maedi, a Thracian people. By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. They will best know the preferred format. Macedonian garrisons were left in Corinth, Chalcis, and the Cadmea (the citadel of Thebes). There he broke the opposition of the Scythian nomads by his use of catapults and, after defeating them in a battle on the north bank of the river, pursued them into the interior. Crossing the Elburz Mountains to the Caspian, he seized Zadracarta in Hyrcania and received the submission of a group of satraps and Persian notables, some of whom he confirmed in their offices; in a diversion westward, perhaps to modern Āmol, he reduced the Mardi, a mountain people who inhabited the Elburz Mountains. In midsummer 330 Alexander set out for the eastern provinces at a high speed via Rhagae (modern Rayy, near Tehrān) and the Caspian Gates, where he learned that Bessus, the satrap of Bactria, had deposed Darius. The issue came to a head at Opis (324), when Alexander’s decision to send home Macedonian veterans under Craterus was interpreted as a move toward transferring the seat of power to Asia. He also dispatched Heracleides, an officer, to explore the Hyrcanian (i.e., Caspian) Sea. His advance through Swāt and Gandhāra was marked by the storming of the almost impregnable pinnacle of Aornos, the modern Pir-Sar, a few miles west of the Indus and north of the Buner River, an impressive feat of siegecraft. One example of their legacy is the Olympic Games. From age 13 to 16 he was taught by Aristotle, who inspired him with an interest in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation, but he was later to advance beyond his teacher’s narrow precept that non-Greeks should be treated as slaves. In Aria he reduced Satibarzanes, who had offered submission only to revolt, and he founded Alexandria of the Arians (modern Herāt). Yes, that Aristotle. By most accounts, he was short and stocky. King Darius III was defeated and killed after the Battle of Gaugamela. The people welcomed him as their deliverer, and the Persian satrap Mazaces wisely surrendered. In autumn 324 Hephaestion died in Ecbatana, and Alexander indulged in extravagant mourning for his closest friend; he was given a royal funeral in Babylon with a pyre costing 10,000 talents. Rathbone Professor Emeritus of Ancient History and Classical Archaeology, University of Liverpool. © 1996 - 2021 National Geographic Society. Also called the Ganga. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. In reconciliation Alexander married her, and the rest of his opponents were either won over or crushed. In Caria, Halicarnassus resisted and was stormed, but Ada, the widow and sister of the satrap Idrieus, adopted Alexander as her son and, after expelling her brother Pixodarus, Alexander restored her to her satrapy. Like many other military superpowers would after him, from the British Empire to Russia to NATO, Alexander waltzed into Afghanistan with all the confidence in the world, but he left battered and bruised, with very little to … Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). When you reach out to them, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource. In addition, Persian nobles had been accepted into the royal cavalry bodyguard. National Geographic Headquarters Alexander the Great’s accomplishments and legacy have been preserved and depicted in many ways. At Gordium in Phrygia, tradition records his cutting of the Gordian knot, which could only be loosed by the man who was to rule Asia; but this story may be apocryphal or at least distorted. Ruled by Hammurabi, restored by Nebuchadrezzar, conquered by Cyrus—this city in the heart of Mesopotamia was both desired and despised, placing it at the center stage of the dawn of history. In 336, however, on Philip’s assassination, Alexander, acclaimed by the army, succeeded without opposition. This ruthless action excited widespread horror but strengthened Alexander’s position relative to his critics and those whom he regarded as his father’s men. Much work fell on the lightarmed Cretan and Macedonian archers, Thracians, and the Agrianian javelin men. When Alexander turned 13, his father looked for a tutor … Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III or Alexander of Macedonia, (born 356 bce, Pella, Macedonia [northwest of Thessaloníki, Greece]—died June 13, 323 bce, Babylon [near Al-Ḥillah, Iraq]), king of Macedonia (336–323 bce), who overthrew the Persian empire, carried Macedonian arms to India, and laid the foundations for the Hellenistic world of territorial kingdoms. In spring 334 he crossed the Dardanelles, leaving Antipater, who had already faithfully served his father, as his deputy in Europe with over 13,000 men; he himself commanded about 30,000 foot and over 5,000 cavalry, of whom nearly 14,000 were Macedonians and about 7,000 allies sent by the Greek League. Moreover, he needed the wealth of Persia if he was to maintain the army built by Philip and pay off the 500 talents he owed. He spent the winter organizing Egypt, where he employed Egyptian governors, keeping the army under a separate Macedonian command. While the siege of Tyre was in progress, Darius sent a new offer: he would pay a huge ransom of 10,000 talents for his family and cede all his lands west of the Euphrates. His determination to incorporate Persians on equal terms in the army and the administration of the provinces was bitterly resented. In reply to a letter from Darius offering peace, Alexander replied arrogantly, recapitulating the historic wrongs of Greece and demanding unconditional surrender to himself as lord of Asia. C, Alexander the Great and the Unity of Mankind, Provo : Classical Journal Vol. He had grown up to the idea. From Maracanda (modern Samarkand) Alexander advanced by way of Cyropolis to the Jaxartes (modern Syrdarya), the boundary of the Persian empire. Jeanna Sullivan, National Geographic Society, Sarah Appleton, National Geographic Society Many historians also think Alexander had heterochromia—one eye was brown, the other blue. Bessus was now in Bactria raising a national revolt in the eastern satrapies with the usurped title of Great King. Recrossing the Hindu Kush, probably by Bamiyan and the Ghorband Valley, Alexander divided his forces. How far the rigour that from now onward Alexander displayed against his governors represents exemplary punishment for gross maladministration during his absence and how far the elimination of men he had come to distrust (as in the case of Philotas and Parmenio) is debatable; but the ancient sources generally favourable to him comment adversely on his severity. He studied with Aristotle for three years and from Aristotle’s teachings, Alexander developed a love of science, particularly of medicine and botany. Philotas, Parmenio’s son, commander of the elite Companion cavalry, was implicated in an alleged plot against Alexander’s life, condemned by the army, and executed; and a secret message was sent to Cleander, Parmenio’s second in command, who obediently assassinated him. Alexander’s second in command was Parmenio, who had secured a foothold in Asia Minor during Philip’s lifetime; many of his family and supporters were entrenched in positions of responsibility. By Tom Lovell (1909 – 1997). The decisive battle of the war was fought on October 31, on the plain of Gaugamela between Nineveh and Arbela. He spent most of his reign on a military campaign through northeast Africa and southwestern Asia. Alexander the Great, depicted in typical Hellenistic style in this alabaster bust from Egypt, was probably physically ordinary. You cannot download interactives. After Phillip's death, several towns and territories under … The march was attended with much fighting and heavy, pitiless slaughter; at the storming of one town of the Malli near the Hydraotes (Ravi) River, Alexander received a severe wound which left him weakened. His troops were extremely loyal, believing in him throughout all hardships. The evidence is carefully reviewed by Daniel Ogden in an article in the volume Alexander the Great: A New History (edd. Omissions? It was probably in connection with a general order now sent out to the Greeks to honour Hephaestion as a hero that Alexander linked the demand that he himself should be accorded divine honours. There is no basis for the tradition that he turned aside to visit Jerusalem. Alexander III of Macedon , commonly known as Alexander the Great. forged was not long-lasting, but his heroic deeds were legendary. This army was to prove remarkable for its balanced combination of arms. As a young boy, Alexander was taught to read, write, and play the lyre. Crossing the Hindu Kush northward over the Khawak Pass (11,650 feet [3,550 metres]), Alexander brought his army, despite food shortages, to Drapsaca (sometimes identified with modern Banu [Andarab], probably farther north at Qunduz); outflanked, Bessus fled beyond the Oxus (modern Amu Darya), and Alexander, marching west to Bactra-Zariaspa (modern Balkh [Wazirabad] in Afghanistan), appointed loyal satraps in Bactria and Aria. Bosworth, A. Join our community of educators and receive the latest information on National Geographic's resources for you and your students. But in pitched battle the striking force was the cavalry, and the core of the army, should the issue still remain undecided after the cavalry charge, was the infantry phalanx, 9,000 strong, armed with 13-foot spears and shields, and the 3,000 men of the royal battalions, the hypaspists. Alexander conquered most of the then known world and created a Greek empire that spanned all the way from the Balkans to India. By the Age of 16, he had Already Won his First Battle and Established his First City. His empire ushered in significant cultural changes in the lands he conquered and changed the course of the region’s history. For information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. For Sardis itself, the chief seat of the barbarian's power in the maritime provinces, and many other considerable places, were surrendered to him; only Halicarnassus and Miletus stood out, which he took by force, together with the territory about them. But the cities remained de facto under Alexander, and his appointment of Calas as satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia reflected his claim to succeed the Great King of Persia. He founded the city of Alexandria near the western arm of the Nile on a fine site between the sea and Lake Mareotis, protected by the island of Pharos, and had it laid out by the Rhodian architect Deinocrates. Leaving Porus, he then proceeded down the river and into the Indus, with half his forces on shipboard and half marching in three columns down the two banks. The celebrated Macedonian king has been one of the most enduring figures in history. After visiting Ilium (Troy), a romantic gesture inspired by Homer, he confronted his first Persian army, led by three satraps, at the Granicus (modern Kocabaş) River, near the Sea of Marmara (May/June 334). His conquest continued through Asia until he reached the shores of the Ganga (Ganges) River in India. After taking Byblos (modern Jubayl) and Sidon (Arabic Ṣaydā), he met with a check at Tyre, where he was refused entry into the island city. Mosaic of Alexander the Great discovered in the House of the Faun, Pompeii, Italy. Suddenly, in Babylon, while busy with plans to improve the irrigation of the Euphrates and to settle the coast of the Persian Gulf, Alexander was taken ill after a prolonged banquet and drinking bout; 10 days later, on June 13, 323, he died in his 33rd year; he had reigned for 12 years and eight months. Alexanders Education: – Phillip brought teachers to Macedonia for Alexander. He murdered Cleitus, one of his most-trusted commanders, in a drunken quarrel, but his excessive display of remorse led the army to pass a decree convicting Cleitus posthumously of treason. Sustainability Policy | Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. Shortly afterward, however, Callisthenes was held to be privy to a conspiracy among the royal pages and was executed (or died in prison; accounts vary); resentment of this action alienated sympathy from Alexander within the Peripatetic school of philosophers, with which Callisthenes had close connections. He now seems to have become convinced of the reality of his own divinity and to have required its acceptance by others. The Phoenician cities Marathus and Aradus came over quietly, and Parmenio was sent ahead to secure Damascus and its rich booty, including Darius’s war chest. Gina Borgia, National Geographic Society On finding the army adamant, Alexander agreed to turn back. This discontent was now fanned by the arrival of 30,000 native youths who had received a Macedonian military training and by the introduction of Asian peoples from Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, and other parts of the empire into the Companion cavalry; whether Asians had previously served with the Companions is uncertain, but if so they must have formed separate squadrons. The struggle turned into a Persian rout and Darius fled, leaving his family in Alexander’s hands; the women were treated with chivalrous care. At this point Alexander benefitted from the sudden death of Memnon, the competent Greek commander of the Persian fleet. In spring 324 he was back in Susa, capital of Elam and administrative centre of the Persian empire; the story of his journey through Carmania in a drunken revel, dressed as Dionysus, is embroidered, if not wholly apocryphal. For a long time his mind had dwelt on ideas of godhead. There is no reason to assume that his demand had any political background (divine status gave its possessor no particular rights in a Greek city); it was rather a symptom of growing megalomania and emotional instability. (384-322 BCE) Greek scientist and philosopher. There was an open mutiny involving all but the royal bodyguard; but when Alexander dismissed his whole army and enrolled Persians instead, the opposition broke down. Half the army with the baggage under Hephaestion and Perdiccas, both cavalry commanders, was sent through the Khyber Pass, while he himself led the rest, together with his siege train, through the hills to the north. Peucestas, the new governor of Persis, gave this policy full support to flatter Alexander; but most Macedonians saw it as a threat to their own privileged position. He developed a life-long love of reading and music. He at once executed the princes of Lyncestis, alleged to be behind Philip’s murder, along with all possible rivals and the whole of the faction opposed to him. He thereupon prepared to use all methods of siegecraft to take it, but the Tyrians resisted, holding out for seven months. If a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. Darius’s Greek mercenaries were largely massacred, but 2,000 survivors were sent back to Macedonia in chains. In July 331 Alexander was at Thapsacus on the Euphrates. “I am not afraid of an army of lions led by a sheep; I am afraid of an army of sheep led by a lion.” ― … Some parts of Caria held out, however, until 332. The cities perforce complied, but often ironically: the Spartan decree read, “Since Alexander wishes to be a god, let him be a god.”. Most of the ancient Persian empire is in modern-day Iran. Ten thousand veterans were now sent back to Macedonia with gifts, and the crisis was surmounted. 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